Foods high in iron (per serving)
100 whole foods ranked by iron per common serving, from USDA FoodData Central. Soybeans leads with 8.8 mg per 1 cup (49% of the Daily Value), followed by Beans, white (7.8 mg) and Mollusks, oyster (7.8 mg).
Iron carries oxygen in haemoglobin. The Daily Value is 18 mg. Heme iron from meat, fish and poultry is absorbed far better than non-heme iron from plants; vitamin C eaten at the same meal improves plant-iron absorption.
Top 10 at a glance
Top 10 foods highest in iron
- Soybeans, mature cooked (boiled, without salt)1 cup (172 g) · 296 kcal8.8 mg49% DV
- Beans, white (mature seeds, canned)1 cup (262 g) · 299 kcal7.8 mg44% DV
- Mollusks, oyster (eastern, wild, cooked, moist heat)3 oz (85 g) · 87 kcal7.8 mg44% DV
- Tofu, raw (regular, prepared with calcium sulfate)0.5 cup (124 g) · 94 kcal6.6 mg37% DV
- Lentils, mature seeds (cooked, boiled, without salt)1 cup (198 g) · 230 kcal6.6 mg37% DV
- Spinach, cooked (boiled, drained, without salt)1 cup (180 g) · 41 kcal6.4 mg36% DV
- Mollusks, mussel (blue, cooked, moist heat)3 oz (85 g) · 146 kcal5.7 mg32% DV
- Beef, variety meats and by-products (liver, cooked, braised)3 oz (85 g) · 162 kcal5.6 mg31% DV
- Teff, cooked1 cup (252 g) · 255 kcal5.2 mg29% DV
- Beans, small white (mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt)1 cup (179 g) · 254 kcal5.1 mg28% DV
All 100 foods ranked
Sort any column. Serving sizes are USDA household measures (a cup, a medium fruit, 3 oz of cooked meat or fish, 1 oz of nuts or cheese). %DV is based on the FDA Daily Value of 18 mg.
| # | Food | Group | Serving | Iron (mg) | % Daily Value | Per 100 g | kcal |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Soybeans, mature cooked (boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (172 g) | 8.8 | 5.1 | 296 | |
| 2 | Beans, white (mature seeds, canned) | Legumes | 1 cup (262 g) | 7.8 | 3 | 299 | |
| 3 | Mollusks, oyster (eastern, wild, cooked, moist heat) | Fish and seafood | 3 oz (85 g) | 7.8 | 9.2 | 87 | |
| 4 | Tofu, raw (regular, prepared with calcium sulfate) | Legumes | 0.5 cup (124 g) | 6.6 | 5.4 | 94 | |
| 5 | Lentils, mature seeds (cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (198 g) | 6.6 | 3.3 | 230 | |
| 6 | Spinach, cooked (boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup (180 g) | 6.4 | 3.6 | 41 | |
| 7 | Mollusks, mussel (blue, cooked, moist heat) | Fish and seafood | 3 oz (85 g) | 5.7 | 6.7 | 146 | |
| 8 | Beef, variety meats and by-products (liver, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 5.6 | 6.5 | 162 | |
| 9 | Teff, cooked | Grains | 1 cup (252 g) | 5.2 | 2 | 255 | |
| 10 | Beans, small white (mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (179 g) | 5.1 | 2.8 | 254 | |
| 11 | Dove, cooked | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 5 | 5.9 | 181 | |
| 12 | Lima beans, immature seeds (raw) | Vegetables | 1 cup (156 g) | 4.9 | 3.1 | 176 | |
| 13 | Beans, navy (mature seeds, canned) | Legumes | 1 cup (262 g) | 4.8 | 1.9 | 296 | |
| 14 | Chickpeas (garbanzo beans, bengal gram) (mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (164 g) | 4.7 | 2.9 | 269 | |
| 15 | Beef, plate steak (boneless, outside skirt, separable lean only, trimmed to 0" fat, select, cooked, grilled) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 4.6 | 5.5 | 228 | |
| 16 | Beans, adzuki (mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (230 g) | 4.6 | 2 | 294 | |
| 17 | Beans, black (mature seeds, canned, low sodium) | Legumes | 1 cup (240 g) | 4.6 | 1.9 | 218 | |
| 18 | Soybeans, green (cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup (180 g) | 4.5 | 2.5 | 254 | |
| 19 | Lima beans, large (mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (188 g) | 4.5 | 2.4 | 216 | |
| 20 | Tempeh | Legumes | 1 cup (166 g) | 4.5 | 2.7 | 319 | |
| 21 | Beans, yellow (mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (177 g) | 4.4 | 2.5 | 255 | |
| 22 | Cowpeas, common (blackeyes (crowder, southern), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (171 g) | 4.3 | 2.5 | 198 | |
| 23 | Game meat, deer (shoulder clod, separable lean only, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 4.3 | 5 | 162 | |
| 24 | Seeds, sesame seeds (whole, roasted and toasted) | Nuts and seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 4.2 | 14.8 | 160 | |
| 25 | Game meat, bison (chuck, shoulder clod, separable lean only, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 4.1 | 4.9 | 164 | |
| 26 | Game meat, rabbit (wild, cooked, stewed) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 4.1 | 4.8 | 147 | |
| 27 | Chard, swiss (cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup, chopped (175 g) | 4 | 2.3 | 35 | |
| 28 | Peas, edible-podded (frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup (160 g) | 3.8 | 2.4 | 83 | |
| 29 | Duck, young duckling (domesticated, White Pekin, breast, meat only, boneless, cooked without skin, broiled) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.8 | 4.5 | 119 | |
| 30 | Quail, cooked (total edible) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.8 | 4.4 | 193 | |
| 31 | Parsley, fresh | Vegetables | 1 cup chopped (60 g) | 3.7 | 6.2 | 22 | |
| 32 | Edamame, frozen (prepared) | Vegetables | 1 cup (155 g) | 3.6 | 2.3 | 188 | |
| 33 | Beef, loin (tenderloin steak, boneless, separable lean only, trimmed to 0" fat, choice, cooked, grilled) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.5 | 4.1 | 179 | |
| 34 | Game meat, elk (round, separable lean only, cooked, broiled) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.5 | 4.1 | 133 | |
| 35 | Cereals, oats (regular and quick, not fortified, dry) | Grains | 1 cup (81 g) | 3.4 | 4.2 | 307 | |
| 36 | Tomatoes, red (ripe, canned, stewed) | Vegetables | 1 cup (255 g) | 3.4 | 1.3 | 66 | |
| 37 | Beef, shank crosscuts (separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4" fat, choice, cooked, simmered) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.3 | 3.9 | 171 | |
| 38 | Spelt, cooked | Grains | 1 cup (194 g) | 3.2 | 1.7 | 246 | |
| 39 | Beef, chuck (clod steak, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4" fat, all grades, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.2 | 3.8 | 161 | |
| 40 | Beef, shoulder pot roast (boneless, separable lean only, trimmed to 0" fat, choice, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.2 | 3.8 | 170 | |
| 41 | Game meat, goat (cooked, roasted) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 3.2 | 3.7 | 122 | |
| 42 | Mungo beans, mature seeds (cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (180 g) | 3.1 | 1.8 | 189 | |
| 43 | Wheat, KAMUT khorasan (cooked) | Grains | 1 cup (172 g) | 3 | 1.8 | 227 | |
| 44 | Asparagus, raw | Vegetables | 1 cup (134 g) | 2.9 | 2.1 | 27 | |
| 45 | Mung beans, mature seeds (cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (202 g) | 2.8 | 1.4 | 212 | |
| 46 | Quinoa, cooked | Grains | 1 cup (185 g) | 2.8 | 1.5 | 222 | |
| 47 | Tofu, soft (prepared with calcium sulfate and magnesium chloride (nigari)) | Legumes | 1 cup (1/2" cubes) (248 g) | 2.8 | 1.1 | 151 | |
| 48 | Tomatoes, crushed (canned) | Vegetables | 0.5 cup (121 g) | 2.7 | 2.3 | 39 | |
| 49 | Beet greens, cooked (boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup (1" pieces) (144 g) | 2.7 | 1.9 | 39 | |
| 50 | Mushrooms, white (cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup pieces (156 g) | 2.7 | 1.7 | 44 | |
| 51 | Peas, mature seeds (sprouted, raw) | Vegetables | 1 cup (120 g) | 2.7 | 2.3 | 149 | |
| 52 | Bison, ground (grass-fed, cooked) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.7 | 3.2 | 152 | |
| 53 | Seeds, sesame butter (tahini, from roasted and toasted kernels (most common type)) | Nuts and seeds | 2 tbsp (30 g) | 2.7 | 8.9 | 178 | |
| 54 | Arrowroot, raw | Vegetables | 1 cup, sliced (120 g) | 2.7 | 2.2 | 78 | |
| 55 | Broadbeans (fava beans), mature seeds (canned) | Legumes | 1 cup (256 g) | 2.6 | 1 | 182 | |
| 56 | Vermicelli, made from soy | Legumes | 1 cup (140 g) | 2.5 | 1.8 | 463 | |
| 57 | Peas, split (mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (196 g) | 2.5 | 1.3 | 231 | |
| 58 | Potatoes, microwaved (cooked in skin, flesh and skin, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 potato (2-3/4" dia by 4-3/4" long) (202 g) | 2.5 | 1.2 | 212 | |
| 59 | Fish, sardine (Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone) | Fish and seafood | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.5 | 2.9 | 177 | |
| 60 | Lentils, sprouted (raw) | Vegetables | 1 cup (77 g) | 2.5 | 3.2 | 82 | |
| 61 | Pigeonpeas, immature seeds (raw) | Vegetables | 1 cup (154 g) | 2.5 | 1.6 | 209 | |
| 62 | Peas, green (cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup (160 g) | 2.5 | 1.5 | 134 | |
| 63 | Crustaceans, crab (queen, cooked, moist heat) | Fish and seafood | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.4 | 2.9 | 98 | |
| 64 | Goose, domesticated (meat only, cooked, roasted) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.4 | 2.9 | 202 | |
| 65 | Mollusks, clam (mixed species, cooked, moist heat) | Fish and seafood | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.4 | 2.8 | 126 | |
| 66 | Lamb, cubed for stew or kabob (leg and shoulder) (separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4" fat, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.4 | 2.8 | 190 | |
| 67 | Seeds, pumpkin and squash seed kernels (dried) | Nuts and seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 2.4 | 8.4 | 158 | |
| 68 | Horned melon (Kiwano) | Fruits | 1 fruit (4-2/3" long x 2-3/4" dia) (209 g) | 2.4 | 1.1 | 92 | |
| 69 | Sweet potato, cooked (boiled, without skin) | Vegetables | 1 cup, mashed (328 g) | 2.4 | 0.7 | 249 | |
| 70 | Garlic, raw | Vegetables | 1 cup (136 g) | 2.3 | 1.7 | 203 | |
| 71 | Lamb, Australian (imported, fresh, shoulder, arm, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/8" fat, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.3 | 2.7 | 202 | |
| 72 | Duck, domesticated (meat only, cooked, roasted) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.3 | 2.7 | 171 | |
| 73 | Lamb, shoulder (arm, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4" fat, choice, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.3 | 2.7 | 237 | |
| 74 | Seeds, hemp seed (hulled) | Nuts and seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 2.3 | 8 | 157 | |
| 75 | Chicken, broilers or fryers (neck, meat only, cooked, simmered) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.2 | 2.6 | 152 | |
| 76 | Seeds, sesame seed kernels (toasted, without salt added (decorticated)) | Nuts and seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 2.2 | 7.8 | 161 | |
| 77 | Collards, cooked (boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup, chopped (190 g) | 2.1 | 1.1 | 63 | |
| 78 | Fish, gefiltefish (commercial, sweet recipe) | Fish and seafood | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.1 | 2.5 | 71 | |
| 79 | Barley, pearled (cooked) | Grains | 1 cup (157 g) | 2.1 | 1.3 | 193 | |
| 80 | Lamb, loin (separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4" fat, choice, cooked, roasted) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2.1 | 2.4 | 172 | |
| 81 | Broadbeans, immature seeds (raw) | Vegetables | 1 cup (109 g) | 2.1 | 1.9 | 78 | |
| 82 | Tofu, firm (prepared with calcium sulfate and magnesium chloride (nigari)) | Legumes | 0.5 cup (126 g) | 2 | 1.6 | 98 | |
| 83 | Pasta, whole-wheat (cooked) | Grains | 1 cup spaghetti not packed (117 g) | 2 | 1.7 | 174 | |
| 84 | Lamb, New Zealand (imported, frozen, loin, separable lean only, cooked, broiled) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2 | 2.3 | 169 | |
| 85 | Turkey, all classes (leg, meat and skin, cooked, roasted) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 2 | 2.3 | 177 | |
| 86 | Fish, mackerel (king, cooked, dry heat) | Fish and seafood | 3 oz (85 g) | 1.9 | 2.3 | 114 | |
| 87 | Seeds, sunflower seed kernels (toasted, without salt) | Nuts and seeds | 1 oz (28 g) | 1.9 | 6.8 | 175 | |
| 88 | Lamb, foreshank (separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4" fat, choice, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 1.9 | 2.3 | 159 | |
| 89 | Dandelion greens, cooked (boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup, chopped (105 g) | 1.9 | 1.8 | 35 | |
| 90 | Mushrooms, Chanterelle (raw) | Vegetables | 1 cup (54 g) | 1.9 | 3.5 | 17 | |
| 91 | Leeks, (bulb and lower leaf-portion) (raw) | Vegetables | 1 cup (89 g) | 1.9 | 2.1 | 54 | |
| 92 | Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds (cooked, boiled, without salt) | Legumes | 1 cup (168 g) | 1.9 | 1.1 | 203 | |
| 93 | Turkey, all classes (back, meat and skin, cooked, roasted) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 1.9 | 2.2 | 207 | |
| 94 | Potatoes, russet (flesh and skin, raw) | Vegetables | 1 Potato medium (2-1/4" to 3-1/4" dia) (213 g) | 1.8 | 0.9 | 168 | |
| 95 | Crustaceans, shrimp (mixed species, canned) | Fish and seafood | 3 oz (85 g) | 1.8 | 2.1 | 85 | |
| 96 | Cabbage, chinese (pak-choi) (cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) | Vegetables | 1 cup, shredded (170 g) | 1.8 | 1 | 20 | |
| 97 | Veal, foreshank (osso buco, separable lean only, cooked, braised) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 1.8 | 2.1 | 133 | |
| 98 | Bulgur, cooked | Grains | 1 cup (182 g) | 1.7 | 1 | 151 | |
| 99 | Turkey, ground (85% lean, 15% fat, patties, broiled) | Meat and poultry | 3 oz (85 g) | 1.7 | 2 | 212 | |
| 100 | Potatoes, flesh and skin (raw) | Vegetables | 1 Potato medium (2-1/4" to 3-1/4" dia) (213 g) | 1.7 | 0.8 | 164 |
Iron by food group
The best iron sources within each group. Each heading opens the full group list.
Fruits high in iron (50)
- Horned melon (Kiwano) · 2.4 mg per 1 fruit (4-2/3" long x 2-3/4" dia)
- Strawberries, frozen (unsweetened) · 1.7 mg per 1 cup, thawed
- Blackberries, frozen (unsweetened) · 1.2 mg per 1 cup, unthawed
- Currants, red and white (raw) · 1.1 mg per 1 cup
- Avocados, raw (all commercial varieties) · 1.1 mg per 1 avocado, NS as to Florida or California
- Raspberries, frozen (red, unsweetened) · 1.1 mg per 1 cup, unthawed
Vegetables high in iron (50)
- Spinach, cooked (boiled, drained, without salt) · 6.4 mg per 1 cup
- Lima beans, immature seeds (raw) · 4.9 mg per 1 cup
- Soybeans, green (cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) · 4.5 mg per 1 cup
- Chard, swiss (cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) · 4 mg per 1 cup, chopped
- Peas, edible-podded (frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt) · 3.8 mg per 1 cup
- Parsley, fresh · 3.7 mg per 1 cup chopped
Legumes high in iron (40)
- Soybeans, mature cooked (boiled, without salt) · 8.8 mg per 1 cup
- Beans, white (mature seeds, canned) · 7.8 mg per 1 cup
- Tofu, raw (regular, prepared with calcium sulfate) · 6.6 mg per 0.5 cup
- Lentils, mature seeds (cooked, boiled, without salt) · 6.6 mg per 1 cup
- Beans, small white (mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt) · 5.1 mg per 1 cup
- Beans, navy (mature seeds, canned) · 4.8 mg per 1 cup
Nuts and seeds high in iron (12)
- Seeds, sesame seeds (whole, roasted and toasted) · 4.2 mg per 1 oz
- Seeds, sesame butter (tahini, from roasted and toasted kernels (most common type)) · 2.7 mg per 2 tbsp
- Seeds, pumpkin and squash seed kernels (dried) · 2.4 mg per 1 oz
- Seeds, hemp seed (hulled) · 2.3 mg per 1 oz
- Seeds, sesame seed kernels (toasted, without salt added (decorticated)) · 2.2 mg per 1 oz
- Seeds, sunflower seed kernels (toasted, without salt) · 1.9 mg per 1 oz
Grains high in iron (17)
- Teff, cooked · 5.2 mg per 1 cup
- Cereals, oats (regular and quick, not fortified, dry) · 3.4 mg per 1 cup
- Spelt, cooked · 3.2 mg per 1 cup
- Wheat, KAMUT khorasan (cooked) · 3 mg per 1 cup
- Quinoa, cooked · 2.8 mg per 1 cup
- Barley, pearled (cooked) · 2.1 mg per 1 cup
Fish and seafood high in iron (14)
- Mollusks, oyster (eastern, wild, cooked, moist heat) · 7.8 mg per 3 oz
- Mollusks, mussel (blue, cooked, moist heat) · 5.7 mg per 3 oz
- Fish, sardine (Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone) · 2.5 mg per 3 oz
- Crustaceans, crab (queen, cooked, moist heat) · 2.4 mg per 3 oz
- Mollusks, clam (mixed species, cooked, moist heat) · 2.4 mg per 3 oz
- Fish, gefiltefish (commercial, sweet recipe) · 2.1 mg per 3 oz
Meat and poultry high in iron (50)
- Beef, variety meats and by-products (liver, cooked, braised) · 5.6 mg per 3 oz
- Dove, cooked · 5 mg per 3 oz
- Beef, plate steak (boneless, outside skirt, separable lean only, trimmed to 0" fat, select, cooked, grilled) · 4.6 mg per 3 oz
- Game meat, deer (shoulder clod, separable lean only, cooked, braised) · 4.3 mg per 3 oz
- Game meat, bison (chuck, shoulder clod, separable lean only, cooked, braised) · 4.1 mg per 3 oz
- Game meat, rabbit (wild, cooked, stewed) · 4.1 mg per 3 oz
Dairy and eggs high in iron (17)
- Egg, whole (cooked, omelet) · 0.9 mg per 1 large
- Cheese, goat (soft type) · 0.5 mg per 1 oz
- Egg, yolk (raw, fresh) · 0.5 mg per 1 large
- Cheese, parmesan (low sodium) · 0.3 mg per 1 oz
- Yogurt, plain (skim milk) · 0.2 mg per 1 cup (8 fl oz)
- Cheese, colby · 0.2 mg per 1 oz
Iron in specific foods
How this list is built. Values are from USDA FoodData Central (SR Legacy, with Foundation Foods analytical updates where available). The pool is 1,677 whole foods: fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts and seeds, grains, fish, meat, poultry, dairy and eggs. Spices, herbs, baby foods, powders, flours, dried and freeze-dried items, juices, processed meats, organ meats other than liver and uncommon foods are excluded; meats, fish, grains and legumes are ranked cooked. Each food family appears once and no single animal or plant fills more than six places. Ranking is by amount per serving; the per-100 g column is shown for reference. A food that USDA has not analysed for iron is left out rather than counted as zero. Full methodology.
Frequently asked questions
Which food is highest in iron?
Among whole foods in the USDA database, Soybeans, mature cooked (boiled, without salt) has the most iron per serving: 8.8 mg per 1 cup (49% of the Daily Value). Per 100 g it contains 5.1 mg.
Which fruit has the most iron?
Horned melon (Kiwano), with 2.4 mg per 1 fruit (4-2/3" long x 2-3/4" dia) (13% of the Daily Value). See the full list of fruits high in iron below.
Which vegetable has the most iron?
Spinach, cooked (boiled, drained, without salt), with 6.4 mg per 1 cup (36% of the Daily Value). See the full list of vegetables high in iron below.
How much iron do I need per day?
The FDA Daily Value used on Nutrition Facts labels is 18 mg of iron for adults and children aged 4 and over. Individual needs vary with age, sex, pregnancy and health conditions.
What counts as a food high in iron?
FDA labeling rules call a food a 'good source' when one serving provides 10 to 19% of the Daily Value and 'high' or 'excellent' at 20% or more. 32 of the 100 foods on this list reach 20% DV per serving.
Related rankings
- Foods high in potassium
- Foods high in magnesium
- Foods high in calcium
- Foods high in zinc
- Foods high in selenium
- Foods high in copper
Nutrient values are from USDA FoodData Central (SR Legacy, April 2018; Foundation Foods, April 2026) and shown per serving as described on each page. %DV uses the FDA Daily Values for adults and children aged 4 and over. This is nutrition data for general information, not medical or dietary advice; talk to a clinician or registered dietitian about your own needs. How the numbers are calculated.